2001 Translation

AD 95-110

Clement of Rome

Clement of Rome writes his First Epistle to the Corinthians, one of the earliest Christian texts outside the New Testament.

Key positions:

• Trinity: No developed trinity doctrine; speaks of Jesus as subordinate to God.
• Heaven: Speaks of resurrection and being ‘gathered into the number of the elect’.
• Hellfire: No mention of eternal torment.
• Soul: No discussion of immortal soul doctrine.
• Authority: Emphasizes church unity and respect for appointed leaders.
• Heresy: Focuses on unity rather than doctrinal conformity.
• End Times: Emphasizes resurrection but provides few details about Christ’s return.

Notable works:

• First Epistle to the Corinthians (authentic)
• Second Epistle to the Corinthians (falsely attributed, AD ~140-160)
• Five other spurious letters (various later dates)

Pseudo-Clementine literature (2nd-4^th centuries):

• Recognitions
• Homilies
• Two Epistles on Virginity
• Several other epistles and decretals

AD 95-135

Epistle of Barnabas

The Epistle of Barnabas appears, traditionally attributed to Barnabas but likely pseudonymous.

Key positions:

• Trinity: No developed doctrine
• Heaven: Emphasizes spiritual interpretation of promises
• Hellfire: No mention
• Soul: Focus on spiritual transformation
• Authority: Emphasizes allegorical interpretation of Old Testament
• Heresy: Warns against Judaizing
• End Times: Discusses signs of the end times

AD 107-110

Ignatius

Ignatius of Antioch writes seven authentic letters while being transported to Rome for execution.

Key positions:

• Trinity: Calls Jesus ‘God’, or possibly, ‘a god’, in a way distinct from later trinity doctrine
• Heaven: Speaks of ‘attaining to God’ after death
• Hellfire: Mentions ‘unquenchable fire’ but unclear if literal
• Soul: No explicit immortal soul doctrine
• Authority: Strong emphasis on episcopal authority
• Heresy: First to use term ‘catholic church’; warns against Docetism
• End Times: Limited discussion of Christ’s return

Notable works:

Authentic letters (AD ~107-110):

• To the Ephesians
• To the Magnesians
• To the Trallians
• To the Romans
• To the Philadelphians
• To the Smyrnaeans
• To Polycarp

Pseudo-Ignatian letters (created AD ~360-380):

• Six additional forged letters
• Heavily interpolated versions of authentic letters adding stronger trinitarian language

AD 110-130

Papias

Papias of Hierapolis's works survive only in fragments quoted by later writers.

Key positions:

• Trinity: Unknown
• Heaven: Described a very physical paradise
• Hellfire: No clear position preserved
• Soul: Unknown
• Authority: Emphasized oral tradition over written
• Heresy: No clear positions preserved
• End Times: Taught literal thousand-year reign of Christ

Notable works:

• Exposition of the Sayings of the Lord (five books, now lost)
• Known primarily through quotations by Irenaeus and Eusebius

AD 140-160

Marcion

Marcion of Sinope produces the first known Christian canon. However, he is not considered a church father, but rather a heretic! We include him here because he was influential in Christian history, although most of what we know about him comes from his opponents.

Key positions:

• Trinity: Taught two different Gods
• Heaven: Taught salvation for spiritual beings only
• Hellfire: Rejected eternal torment
• Soul: Limited discussion preserved
• Authority: Emphasized Paul’s writings above all others
• Heresy: Considered heretical by other Christians
• End Times: Limited information survives

Notable works:

• First Christian canon (now lost)
• Antitheses (reconstructed from opponents’ quotations)

AD 150-155

Justin Martyr

Justin Martyr writes his major apologetic works.

Key positions:

• Trinity: Describes Jesus as ‘another God’ under the Father
• Heaven: Teaches righteous souls await resurrection in better place
• Hellfire: Teaches punishment for the wicked, but its eternal nature is unclear
• Soul: Argues for natural immortality of soul
• Authority: Emphasizes apostolic tradition but relies heavily on philosophy
• Heresy: Focuses on defending Christianity against paganism
• End Times: Detailed teaching on millennium and resurrection

Notable works:

• First Apology (AD ~150)
• Second Apology (AD ~155)
• Dialogue with Trypho (AD ~155)
• Several spurious works later attributed to him

Pseudo-Justin works (various later dates):

• Questions and Responses to the Orthodox
• Questions of the Christians to the Gentiles
• Questions of the Gentiles to the Christians
• On the Resurrection
• Hortatory Address to the Greeks

AD 150-225

Epistle to Diognetus

The anonymous Epistle to Diognetus is written.

Key positions:

• Trinity: Early Christian understanding of God and Logos
• Heaven: Christians as ‘citizens of heaven’
• Hellfire: Talked of eternal fire for the condemned
• Soul: Focus on Christian life in the world
• Authority: Emphasizes divine revelation
• Heresy: Critiques both Judaism and paganism
• End Times: Limited eschatological discussion

Its authenticity it unclear. The last two chapters are often considered spurious later additions.

AD 155-160

Polycarp

Polycarp writes his only surviving authentic work.

Key positions:

• Trinity: Simple biblical language about Father and Son
• Heaven: No explicit teaching on heavenly reward
• Hellfire: No explicit eternal torment doctrine
• Soul: No discussion of soul immortality
• Authority: Emphasizes moral conduct over church hierarchy
• Heresy: Warns against those who deny Christ’s coming in flesh
• End Times: Limited discussion of judgment day

The Martyrdom of Polycarp, an account written shortly after his death (AD ~155-160).

Ignatius was the last of the ‘Apostolic Fathers’, a group of early Christian writers who were contemporaries of the apostles.

AD 160-170

Theophilus of Antioch

Theophilus of Antioch writes his defense of Christianity.

Key positions:

• Trinity: First to use term trias (triad) in discussing God, though different from later trinity doctrine
• Heaven: Describes paradise as both past and future state
• Hellfire: Teaches conditional immortality
• Soul: Soul neither immortal nor mortal by nature
• Authority: Emphasizes Hebrew prophets over Greek philosophy
• Heresy: Focuses on paganism rather than internal disputes
• End Times: Limited discussion of final judgment

Notable works:

• To Autolycus (authentic)
• Commentary on the Gospels (lost)
• Other works known only by title

AD 165-175

Tatian’s Works

Tatian, a former student of Justin Martyr, produces significant works before his later break with mainstream Christianity.

Key positions:

• Trinity: Logos theology similar to Justin Martyr
• Heaven: Speaks of immortality as future gift
• Hellfire: Taught soul’s mortality
• Soul: Denied natural immortality
• Authority: Emphasized scripture over tradition
• Heresy: Later considered heretical for ascetic views
• End Times: Limited surviving discussion of final judgment

Notable works:

• Address to the Greeks (authentic)
• Diatessaron (first gospel harmony)
• Several lost works mentioned by others

AD 170-180

Melito of Sardis

Melito writes important early Christian works.

Key positions:

• Trinity: No mention, focuses on Father and Son
• Heaven: Emphasizes bodily resurrection and future kingdom
• Hellfire: Limited surviving discussion
• Soul: Emphasized bodily resurrection
• Authority: Produced first known Christian canon of Old Testament
• Heresy: Defended Christianity to Roman authorities
• End Times: Speaks of Christ’s return and judgment

Notable works:

• On Pascha (authentic)
• Various fragments preserved by others
• Several works known only by title

AD 180-185

Irenaeus

Irenaeus writes his comprehensive work Against Heresies.

Key positions:

• Trinity: Develops concept of divine economy; Son and Spirit as God’s ‘hands’
• Heaven: Teaches physical resurrection and earthly kingdom
• Hellfire: May have taught eternal conscious torment, but this is unclear
• Soul: Argues against natural immortality but for eternal preservation
• Authority: Strongly emphasizes apostolic succession
• Heresy: First systematic refutation of ‘heresies’
• End Times: Detailed millennial teaching with physical paradise

Notable works:

• Against Heresies (authentic)
• Demonstration of Apostolic Preaching (authentic)
• Various fragments of other works

AD 190-200

Clement of Alexandria

Clement of Alexandria writes his major works combining Christianity with Greek philosophy.

Key positions:

• Trinity: Logos doctrine influenced by Platonism
• Heaven: Describes progressive advancement through heavens
• Hellfire: Sees punishment as remedial
• Soul: Heavily influenced by Greek philosophy
• Authority: Balances scripture, reason, and tradition
• Heresy: More inclusive approach to Greek philosophy
• End Times: Allegorical interpretation of prophecies

Notable works:

• Protrepticus (Exhortation)
• Paedagogus (The Instructor)
• Stromateis (Miscellanies)
• Several works survive only in fragments

AD 197-220

Tertullian

Tertullian produces numerous theological works.

Key positions:

• Trinity: First to use term ‘trinitas’; sees Son as subordinate to Father
• Heaven: Describes paradise as temporary holding place
• Hellfire: Vivid descriptions of eternal torment
• Soul: Argues soul is corporeal but immortal
• Authority: Initially supports church authority, later joins Montanists
• Heresy: Develops rule of faith against heretics
• End Times: Detailed millennial expectations

Notable works:

• Apologeticus (AD 197)
• Against Praxeas (AD ~213)
• On the Flesh of Christ
• Against Marcion
• Over 30 other surviving works

AD 215-254

Origen

Origen writes his most significant theological texts. Some of his works were later considered heretical.

Key positions:

• Trinity: Teaches eternal generation of Son but clear subordination
• Heaven: Multiple heavens with progressive spiritual advancement
• Hellfire: Suggests eventual universal salvation
• Soul: Pre-existence of souls and eventual restoration
• Authority: Emphasizes allegorical interpretation
• Heresy: More inclusive approach to divergent views
• End Times: Spiritualized interpretation of prophecies

Notable works:

• On First Principles (authentic)
• Against Celsus (authentic)
• Commentary on John
• Many works survive only in fragments or translations

Pseudo-Origen works appear in later centuries, especially on biblical commentary.

AD 250-258

Cyprian

Cyprian of Carthage writes extensively on church unity.

Key positions:

• Trinity: Uses biblical language about Father, Son, and Spirit without developed theological framework
• Heaven: Emphasizes heavenly reward for martyrs
• Hellfire: Emphasizes eternal punishment
• Soul: Limited discussion of soul’s nature
• Authority: Strong emphasis on episcopal authority
• Heresy: ‘No salvation outside the church’
• End Times: Focus on immediate persecution rather than final times

Notable works:

• On the Unity of the Catholic Church
• Various letters and treatises on church discipline
• Works on martyrdom and persecution

After this, the fathers are known as the Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers.

AD 250-400

Pseudo-Hippolytus

Works falsely attributed to Hippolytus include:

• On the End of the World (3^rd century)
• Against Beron and Helix (3rd-4^th century)
• On the Twelve Apostles
• Various liturgical texts
• Homilies on various topics

These works significantly influenced later theological developments, especially regarding liturgical practices and eschatology.

AD 250-500

Pseudo-Cyprian

Works falsely attributed to Cyprian include:

• On Rebaptism (3^rd century)
• On Dice Players (3rd-4^th century)
• On the Calculation of Easter (4^th century)
• Against Jews (4th-5^th century)
• Various sermons and treatises

AD 347-380

Athanasius

Athanasius produces key theological writings. He played a major role in the Council of Nicaea.

Key positions:

• Trinity: Champions full deity of Christ and Spirit
• Heaven: Teaches deification of believers in heaven
• Hellfire: Teaches eternal conscious torment
• Soul: Emphasizes immortality through Christ
• Authority: Strongly defends Nicene orthodoxy
• Heresy: Primary opponent of Arianism
• End Times: Limited focus on eschatology

Notable works:

• On the Incarnation
• Life of Anthony
• Orations Against the Arians
• Letters to Serapion

Several works falsely attributed to him appear in later centuries.

AD 350-600

Pseudo-Basil

Works falsely attributed to Basil the Great include:

• Additional ascetic rules (4th-5^th century)
• Homilies on creation (5^th century)
• Letters on monastic life
• On Consolation in Adversity
• Various spiritual treatises

AD 370-379

Basil the Great

Basil of Caesarea, known as Basil the Great, produces influential theological and monastic works. One of the most important of the Cappadocian Fathers, a trio who helped shape Church theology, especially the doctrine of the Trinity, devotion to Mary, and monasticism.

Key positions:

• Trinity: Developed technical language distinguishing ousia and hypostasis
• Heaven: Emphasized monastic life as foretaste of heaven
• Hellfire: Traditional view of eternal punishment
• Soul: Focus on spiritual development
• Authority: Balance of episcopal and monastic authority
• Heresy: Opposed Arianism and pneumatomachians
• End Times: Focus on present spiritual transformation

Notable works:

• On the Holy Spirit
• Against Eunomius
• Monastic Rules
• Hexaemeron (sermons on creation)

AD 374-397

Ambrose of Milan

Ambrose serves as Bishop of Milan and produces significant works. Had great influence on Augustine.

Key positions:

• Trinity: Strongly defends Nicene orthodoxy
• Heaven: Develops theology of Christian mysteries
• Hellfire: Eternal punishment
• Soul: Influenced by Neo-Platonism
• Authority: Strong episcopal authority
• Heresy: Opposed Arianism and paganism
• End Times: Focus on present spiritual reality

Notable works:

• On the Duties of the Clergy
• On the Holy Spirit
• On the Mysteries
• Various hymns and letters

AD 372-390

Gregory of Nazianzus

Gregory of Nazianzus, known as ‘The Theologian,’ writes major theological works.

One of the Cappadocian Fathers.

Key positions:

• Trinity: Refined trinitarian theology through Theological Orations
• Heaven: Described progressive spiritual ascent
• Hellfire: Suggested possibility of temporal punishment
• Soul: Emphasized soul’s journey toward God
• Authority: Balanced contemplation and active ministry
• Heresy: Systematic opposition to Arianism
• End Times: Focus on spiritual rather than literal interpretation

Notable works:

• Five Theological Orations
• Autobiographical poems
• Funeral orations
• Various theological discourses

AD 372-394

Gregory of Nyssa

Gregory of Nyssa develops mystical theology.

One of the Cappadocian Fathers.

Key positions:

• Trinity: Philosophical defense of trinity doctrine
• Heaven: Taught doctrine of eternal spiritual progress
• Hellfire: Suggested eventual universal restoration
• Soul: Detailed theory of spiritual development
• Authority: Emphasized mystical experience
• Heresy: Opposed Eunomians
• End Times: Universal restoration (apokatastasis)

Notable works:

• Life of Moses
• On the Making of Man
• Against Eunomius
• Great Catechetical Oration

AD 380-400

Pseudo-Athanasius

Several works falsely attributed to Athanasius appear:

• Dialogue Against the Arians
• Dispute Between Athanasius and Arius
• Synopsis of Sacred Scripture
• Life of Saint Syncletica
• Various homilies and treatises

AD 382-405

Jerome

Jerome produces the Latin Vulgate translation of the Bible and other works.

Key positions:

• Trinity: Orthodox Nicene position
• Heaven: Teaches hierarchical heavenly rewards
• Hellfire: Teaches eternal punishment
• Soul: Created for each person
• Authority: Emphasizes biblical authority
• Heresy: Strong opponent of Origenism
• End Times: Mixed literal and allegorical interpretation

Notable works:

• Latin Vulgate translation
• Commentary on Matthew
• Against Jovinian
• Letters and polemical treatises

Several later works were falsely attributed to Jerome in medieval period.

AD 386-407

John Chrysostom

John Chrysostom, known for his preaching, produces extensive biblical commentaries.

Key positions:

• Trinity: Orthodox Nicene position
• Heaven: Emphasized practical Christian living
• Hellfire: Strong advocate of eternal punishment
• Soul: Focus on moral reformation
• Authority: Emphasized pastoral care
• Heresy: Focused on moral reform over theological speculation
• End Times: Literal interpretation of prophecies

Notable works:

• Homilies on various biblical books
• On the Priesthood
• Against Judaizing Christians
• Letters from exile

AD 397-430

Augustine

Augustine of Hippo writes his most influential texts.

Key positions:

• Trinity: Develops psychological analogies for Trinity
• Heaven: Describes beatific vision as highest good
• Hellfire: Strong advocate of eternal torment
• Soul: Created but immortal
• Authority: Balance of scripture and church authority
• Heresy: Systematic opposition to multiple ‘heresies’
• End Times: Amillennial interpretation of Revelation

Notable works:

• Confessions (397-400)
• On the Trinity (400-416)
• City of God (413-426)
• Retractations (426-427)
• Numerous other treatises and letters

Pseudo-Augustinian works (5th-12^th centuries):

• On True and False Repentance
• On the Assumption of the Virgin Mary
• Sermons to the Brothers in the Desert
• Various other treatises and sermons

AD 400-600

Pseudo-Jerome

Works falsely attributed to Jerome include:

• Commentary on the Gospels
• On the Assumption of the Virgin
• Various letters on monastic life
• Martyrology of Jerome
• Commentary on the Psalms

AD 400-900

Pseudo-Chrysostom

Works falsely attributed to John Chrysostom include:

• Opus Imperfectum in Matthaeum (5th-6^th century)
• Various liturgical texts (5th-9^th centuries)
• Numerous homilies on feast days
• Spiritual treatises on prayer and fasting
• Letters on monastic discipline

AD 412-444

Cyril of Alexandria

Cyril of Alexandria writes major theological works and played a major role in the Council of Ephesus.

Key positions:

• Trinity: Develops Christological doctrine
• Heaven: Focus on union with Christ
• Hellfire: Eternal punishment
• Soul: Emphasis on Christ’s full humanity
• Authority: Strong papal and episcopal claims
• Heresy: Opposed Nestorianism
• End Times: Limited eschatological focus

Notable works:

• Against Nestorius
• Commentary on John
• Various letters and treatises

AD 440-461

Pope Leo I (Leo the Great)

Pope Leo I, known as Leo the Great, serves as Bishop of Rome and produces influential works. He played a major role in the Council of Chalcedon.

Key positions:

• Trinity: Refined Christological formulations
• Heaven: Emphasized role of church in salvation
• Hellfire: Eternal punishment
• Soul: Focus on Christ’s two natures
• Authority: Developed papal primacy doctrine
• Heresy: Opposed Monophysitism and Manichaeism
• End Times: Limited eschatological focus

Notable works:

• Tome of Leo
• Sermons on liturgical feasts
• Letters defending papal authority
• Various doctrinal treatises

AD 485-535

Pseudo-Dionysius

Pseudo-Dionysius writes influential mystical works, falsely attributed to the biblical Dionysius the Areopagite.

Key positions:

• Trinity: Mystical approach through negative theology
• Heaven: Detailed hierarchy of angelic beings
• Hellfire: Focus on mystical ascent rather than punishment
• Soul: Emphasis on mystical union with God
• Authority: Balanced ecclesiastical and mystical authority
• Heresy: Synthesis of Christian and Neoplatonic thought
• End Times: Mystical interpretation of prophecies

Notable works:

• On the Celestial Hierarchy
• On the Ecclesiastical Hierarchy
• On Divine Names
• Mystical Theology
• Ten Letters

AD 500-800

Pseudo-Gregory

Works falsely attributed to Gregory of Nyssa include:

• On the Soul and Resurrection (portions)
• Testimonies Against the Jews
• Various homilies
• Letters on the spiritual life

AD 590-604

Gregory the Great

Gregory I serves as Bishop of Rome and produces extensive writings.

Key positions:

• Trinity: Orthodox Nicene position
• Heaven: Wrote about the purgatory concept
• Hellfire: Detailed teaching on afterlife
• Soul: Emphasized pastoral care of souls
• Authority: Balanced papal authority with pastoral care
• Heresy: Focus on practical reform
• End Times: Detailed angelology and demonology

Notable works:

• Pastoral Rule
• Dialogues
• Moralia in Job
• Numerous letters and homilies

AD 600-636

Isidore of Seville

Isidore produces encyclopedic works preserving ancient knowledge.

Key positions:

• Trinity: Traditional Nicene orthodoxy
• Heaven: Systematic organization of theological concepts
• Hellfire: Eternal punishment
• Soul: Synthesis of patristic teaching
• Authority: Emphasized episcopal authority
• Heresy: Opposed Arianism among Visigoths
• End Times: Traditional eschatology

Notable works:

• Etymologies
• On Church Offices
• On the Nature of Things
• Chronicle of world history